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[ Back to index ] 1. Background
1.1 Introduction
As the human population and economy of Vietnam increase and develop, greater demands are being placed on the country's natural resources. Rational land-use planning will, therefore, be a pre-requisite for sustainable development in the 21st Century. If the full diversity of the country's natural habitats, communities and species is to be maintained, decisions makers at all levels, donors, and NGOs must have access to accurate, up to date information regarding the conservation importance of sites. It is essential that such information is based on clear, objective and universally accepted criteria. This directory is a contribution to conservation planning in Vietnam for the 21st Century. The directory uses birds as indicators to identify a set of internationally important sites for biodiversity conservation. Birds are used because they are an important conservation focus in their own right, and because they have been shown to be effective indicators of biodiversity in other taxonomic groups, especially when used to define networks of priority sites for conservation1,2. 1.2 Aim of the directory
The aim of this directory is to present information on a set of internationally important sites for the conservation of birds and biodiversity in Vietnam. The objectives of the directory are to: · Present data on international important sites for the conservation of birds and other biodiversity in a standardised and clear format. · Assist Vietnam to meet its obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance by, in the first case, identifying candidate sites for inclusion within a representative system of protected areas, and, in the second case, identifying candidate sites for nomination as Ramsar Sites. · Inform decision makers at local, national and international levels of the biodiversity values of sites, to identify threats to biodiversity, and to recommend appropriate steps that can be taken to ensure their conservation. · Identify clear priorities for conservation action, and to encourage government agencies, donors and NGOs to address them. · Provide a centralised source of information for use in education, training and environmental awareness. · Provide information on key sites for birds and biodiversity in a format that can be used by birdwatchers and thereby support the development of ecotourism in Vietnam. 1.3 General information on Vietnam
Location. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is situated in mainland South-East Asia, on the eastern coast of the Indochinese Peninsula. Vietnam is a relatively narrow country, 525 km across at its widest point and 47 km across at its narrowest. Vietnam has a coastline of 3,260 km and a total continental land area of 330,363 km2, and is bounded by the coordinates 8°30' to 23°22'N and 102°10' to 109°24'E. Vietnam borders the People's Republic of China to the north, and the Lao People's Democratic Republic and the Kingdom of Cambodia to the west3. Topography. Vietnam has a very diverse topography. The main lowland areas are two large alluvial plains in the Red River Delta in the north and the Mekong Delta in the south, connected by a narrow coastal plain. The main mountain ranges in the country are the Hoang Lien mountains, which contain Vietnam's highest peak, Mount Fan Si Pan (3,143 m asl), and the Annamite mountains (called Truong Son in Vietnamese). The northern Annamite mountains are a relatively narrow ridge running along the border with Laos. In central Vietnam, the Annamite mountains widen to form the Kon Tum plateau. After decreasing in elevation to the south of the Kon Tum plateau, the southern Annamite mountains rise again to form the Da Lat plateau. The Kon Tum and Da Lat plateaus, together with intervening low-lying areas, are collectively termed the Central Highlands. Climate. Vietnam has a
tropical monsoon climate dominated by the south-west monsoon between May
and September and by the north-east monsoon between October and April.
Rainfall patterns in the Red River and Mekong Deltas are dominated by
the south-west monsoon, while those in the central coastal region are
dominated by the north-east monsoon. Parts of the Central Highlands,
sheltered from the north-east monsoon by the Annamite mountains, have a
markedly drier climate than other parts of the country. In general, the
north of the country experiences higher seasonal variations in
temperature than the south, although there are marked differences within
these regions. Population.
The population of Vietnam is approximately 78 million, with
an annual growth rate of 1.8%4. Around 80% of the population
lives in rural areas4. At 235 people per km2, the
population density in Vietnam is high relative to other countries in
South-East Asia3,4. However, the population of Vietnam is not
evenly distributed but concentrated in the Red River and Mekong Delta
regions, while many mountainous areas are sparsely populated3.
The population density in the Mekong Delta is around 500 people per km2,
while that in the Red River Delta is nearly double, at around 1,000
people per km2: a rural population density found nowhere else
in South-East Asia apart from Java5. A total of 54 ethnic
groups are recognised in Vietnam, of which the Kinh (also known as Viet)
account for 87% of the total population6. Economics. Vietnam is currently undergoing an economic transition from a central-planned economy to a market-oriented economy. Vietnam's GDP growth has been rapid over the last decade, and annual per capita gross domestic product (GDP) is currently around US$3504. Vietnam's principal exports are petroleum, rice, marine products, coffee, rubber, coal and clothing4. Apart from the last, all of these exports are agriculture or natural resource based, and Vietnam is expected to be heavily dependent on exploitation of natural resources for some time7. Environment. A long period of economic development and population growth, preceded by a series of wars, has resulted in the over-exploitation of Vietnam's natural resources. Over the last five decades, natural forest cover has declined from 43 to 29% of the national land area8, and much of the remaining forest has been degraded. Widespread deforestation has been accompanied by degradation of arable land, soil erosion, degradation of water catchments, diminished groundwater sources, and loss of biodiversity. Over the last decade, however, the government of Vietnam, with the support of donors and NGOs, has implemented a series of policies aimed at preventing and controlling pollution, improving environmental quality, and promoting the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and natural resources. These policies culminated in the formulation of the National Strategy for Environment Protection 2001-20109. 1.4 Biodiversity conservation in Vietnam
Biodiversity values. For a country of relatively small size, Vietnam supports relatively high levels of biodiversity. This can be largely attributed to the wide variation of latitude and altitude within the country, resulting in the development of a wide range of natural habitats. The Annamite mountains support a large number of endemic plants and animals, some of them only discovered in the last decade, such as Saola Pseudoryx nghetinhensis10, Giant Muntjac Megamuntiacus vuquangensis11, Annamite Muntjac Muntiacus truongsonensis12 and Annamite Striped Rabbit Nesolagus timminsi13. Limestone karst areas in the north and centre of the country also support a number of endemic plants and animals, most notably several endemic primate taxa, such as Delacour's Langur Trachypithecus delacouri and Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkey Rhinopithecus avunculus. Lowland forest areas are also of significance for biodiversity conservation, as they support a range of endemic and globally threatened plants and animals, including one of only two remaining populations of Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus in the world14. Threats. In recent decades, Vietnam's biodiversity has become increasingly threatened. The 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists 245 global threatened species of plants and animals as occurring in Vietnam15, while the Red Data Book of Vietnam lists 713 nationally threatened species of plants and animals16,17. The major immediate causes of biodiversity loss are over-exploitation and habitat loss. There is a long tradition of natural resource use among many communities in Vietnam. While, in many instances, exploitation of natural resources for domestic consumption can be sustainable, opening up of Vietnam's economy to outside market forces in recent years, coupled with expansion of the transportation network, has resulted in a rapid expansion of the wildlife trade, and rapid declines in the populations of many plant and animal species, including turtles, bears, pangolins and valuable timber species. Although wartime bombing, spraying of defoliants and mechanized land clearing resulted in the loss of significant areas of natural forest18, the major causes of forest loss in Vietnam have been agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, commercial logging, over-exploitation of firewood and other forest products, and reliance on destructive forms of pioneer agriculture by some representatives of the ethnic minorities19,20. Regarding coastal and marine ecosystems, the pattern is similar, with aquaculture development, destructive fishing practices and afforestation leading to loss of natural habitats. Underlying all these threats are population growth, economic development, increasing demand for forest products, and increasing demand for export crops, such as coffee, rubber and cashew20. Conservation action. The government of Vietnam took the first official steps towards biodiversity conservation in the 1960s by issuing decrees establishing the country's first protected area and protecting several rare species, including Tiger Panthera tigris and Asian Elephant Elephas maximus21. During the 1980s, a concerted effort was made to build a scientific basis for conservation planning, and, in 1985, the Vietnam National Conservation Strategy was published22. This strategy, together with the Tropical Forestry Action Plan published in 199123, became the basis of the National Plan for Environment and Sustainable Development 1991-2000, which set out government policy for conservation and prioritised action areas24. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Vietnam became a signatory to a number of international conventions, including the World Heritage Convention in 198725, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention) in 198926, the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1993, and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) in 199421. Following the ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1994, the government of Vietnam prepared the Biodiversity Action Plan for Vietnam, which laid out a clear plan of action to conserve the nation's biodiversity21. In recent years, the government of Vietnam, with support from donors and NGOs, has continued its efforts to conserve the nation's biodiversity. Significant developments include the formulation of the National Strategy for Environment Protection 2001-2010 and the accompanying National Environmental Action Plan 2001-20059, and the initiation of the National Five Million Hectare Reforestation Programme 1998-2010, which aims to restore forest cover to 1945 levels by the year 2010, preserve genetic resources and protect biodiversity8. The implementation of the National Five Million Hectare Reforestation Programme is being supported by a partnership of government institutions, bilateral and multilateral donor organisations and international NGOs, through the framework of the Forest Sector Support Programme27. The protected areas system. Since the 1960s, the government of Vietnam has been developing a system of protected areas25. While, the institutional and legal arrangements for protected areas have yet to be finalised, the government of Vietnam has decreed the establishment of a large number of protected areas, and proposals have been made for the establishment of many others26. The majority of protected areas decreed to date are Special-use Forests, which mainly comprise terrestrial forest sites, although a number of wetland and marine sites are also included25,26. In addition, proposals have been formulated for systems of wetland and marine protected areas, and a small number of sites have been designated under international conventions26. In addition to protected areas, there are a number of other land-use designations in Vietnam that can also meet biodiversity conservation goals, including production forest and protection forest. Production forests. Forests in Vietnam are classified into three management categories: production forests, protection forests and special-use forests28. Prior to the late 1990s, most production forests were under the management of forest enterprises charged with producing timber and other forest products. In recent years, as a result of declining timber stocks, many forest enterprises have significantly reduced or halted extractive activities, and shifted their management objectives towards plantation forestry or protection and rehabilitation of natural forest. With regard to those forest enterprises that continue to exploit natural forest, the government of Vietnam, with the support of donors, NGOs and commercial companies, has taken some initial steps towards introducing sustainable forest management to Vietnam, including the establishment of a National Working Group on Sustainable Forest Management. While sustainable forest management has yet to be introduced to any production forest in Vietnam, it has the potential to support the attainment of biodiversity conservation goals within these forests. Protection forests. Protection forests are managed with the principal objectives of catchment protection, soil erosion control, natural disaster mitigation and climate regulation28. While they have an important role in maintaining and restoring natural habitat, particularly in mountainous areas, they do not have a specific biodiversity conservation role. In addition, enforcement of forest protection regulations is typically weaker in protection forests than other forest categories. Special-use forests. Special-use forests are the only category of forest in Vietnam with the specific objective of biodiversity conservation28. Special-use forests are classified into three categories: national parks, nature reserves and cultural, historical and environmental sites28. Since the first special-use forest, Cuc Phuong, was established in 1962, the government of Vietnam has steadily expanded the system26. In 1997, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development initiated a process to review and expand the system of special-use forests, to meet a national target of 2 million hectares by 201025. This process was supported by a European Union-funded project implemented by BirdLife International and the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, which conducted a review of the existing system29 and prepared a draft revised list of special-use forests26. This list is awaiting submission to the government for approval25. As of September 2002, there were 121 Special-use Forests in Vietnam, comprising 21 national parks, 63 nature reserves and 37 cultural and historical sites, with a total area of 2,382,735 ha. Vietnam’s system of special-use forests is still evolving in terms of both coverage and institutional arrangements. Despite achievements in terms of representation and coverage, many challenges remain. Some challenges relate to funding, as existing sources of funding for special-use forests are both insufficient and inappropriate, with a focus on infrastructure development and reforestation, at the expense of conservation activities, such as community liaison, environmental education, and patrolling. Other challenges relate to existing management regulations, which currently prohibit a number of potentially sustainable forms of natural resource use that might be used to generate incentives for local stakeholders to support protected area management. Fortunately, these challenges are being addressed by a number of initiatives, including the Danida-funded Strengthening Protected Area Management in Vietnam Project, currently being implemented by WWF and the Forest Protection Department, which has prepared a draft protected areas management strategy30, and the National Conservation Fund, an innovative, national-level financing mechanism, which is currently being developed by the Department for Forestry Development, with support from the Global Environment Facility, as a component of the Forest Sector Development Project, under the framework of the Forest Sector Support Programme. Marine protected areas. While, the system of special-use forests includes a few marine sites, marine habitats are currently under-represented within the national protected areas system. However, the Ministry of Fisheries has recently been assigned the responsibility for establishing and managing a system of marine protected areas25, and the government has set a target to formally establish 15 marine protected areas by 201031. Wetland protected areas. As with marine sites, although the system of special-use forests includes a number of wetland sites, wetland habitats are currently under-represented within the national protected areas system. Wetlands are not currently recognised as a distinct management category. However, the government has already identified 79 wetland sites of national importance, which may form the basis of a system of wetland protected areas. Responsibilities for the management of this system have yet to be clearly defined25. Other protected area designations. A small number of sites in Vietnam have been designated under international conventions. In 1988, Xuan Thuy in the Red River Delta was designated as the country's first Ramsar site26. To date, the site remains the only Ramsar site in Vietnam, although proposals have been made for other sites, including Tram Chim, Thai Thuy, Tam Giang-Cau Hai and the wetlands of Cat Tien26. Vietnam signed the World Heritage Convention in 1987, and there are currently four World Heritage Sites in Vietnam: Ha Long bay, the complex of Hue monuments, Hoi An ancient town and My Son sanctuary26. In 2000, Can Gio was designated as Vietnam’s first Man and the Biosphere Reserve. In the following year, Cat Tien was also designated as a Man and the Biosphere Reserve, and proposals are currently being prepared to designate a number of other sites25. Community-based conservation. In addition to official protected areas, a small but growing number of sites in Vietnam are being managed with the objective of biodiversity conservation by local stakeholders. These include Ha Nam island, a coastal wetland, where a site-support group has been established with the support of BirdLife International; Trao reef, where a locally managed marine reserve has been established with the support of the International Marinelife Alliance; and Che Tao forest, where community-based forest protection groups have been established with the support of Fauna & Flora International. 1.5 The Birds of Vietnam
Overview. Vietnam has one of the richest avifaunas of mainland South-East Asia. Figures for the total number of bird species recorded in the country range from 82832 to 88833. It is not possible, however, to give a precise figure, as some species recorded historically may already be nationally extinct, for example Great-billed Heron Ardea sumatrana, Giant Ibis Thaumantibis gigantea and Black-necked Crane Grus nigricollis, while new species are still being added to the list34. The high bird species richness in Vietnam can be attributed to the wide latitudinal and elevational variation present within the country, which has led to the development of a wide range of habitat types. History of ornithological research. Ornithological research in Vietnam can be divided into four periods. The first period began in the 1870s and continued until 1920. During this period, the first significant collection of Vietnamese birds was made by G. Tirant35, who collected over 1,000 specimens in Cochinchina between 1875 and 187836. Other important collections were made by R. Germain in Cochinchina37, N. Kuroda38 in Tonkin, and C. B. Kloss39 on the Da Lat plateau. Among the birds discovered by Kloss were Collared Laughingthrush Garrulax yersini and Black-hooded Laughingthrush G. milleti39. Other, smaller collections were made by L Boutan40 and Dr. J. Vassal, who discovered White-cheeked Laughingthrush G. vassali41. The most important academic study of the avifauna of Vietnam prepared during this period was Les Oiseaux du Cambodge, du Laos, de l'Annam et du Tonkin by E. Oustalet42,43. During the second period, which began in the late 1920s and continued until the outbreak of the Second World War, the major contribution to Vietnamese ornithology was made by J. Delacour and his colleagues P. Jabouille, P. Engelbach, A. David Beaulieu, J. C. Greenway and W. P. Lowe. Between 1923 and 1939, Delacour and his colleagues conducted six ornithological expeditions to Indochina44, during which time they collected some 50,000 bird specimens, as well as extensive ecological and distributional data36. These collections stand as the most extensive collections of Indochinese birds to date, and formed the basis of the seminal work Les Oiseaux de l'Indochine Française45. Other important collections during this period were made by H. Stevens in Tonkin46, the Kelley-Roosevelts expedition, also in Tonkin47, and B. Björkegren, who discovered Grey-crowned Crocias Crocias langbianis48. The third period began at the end of the Second World War and continued until 1988. The first part of this period was dominated by armed conflicts, and ornithological research was limited to observations made by a few, largely amateur, expatriate ornithologists resident in Vietnam, for example J. Brunel49, P. Wildash50 and W. Fisher51. However, the end of the Second Indochina War and the reunification of Vietnam in 1975, heralded a period of renewed ornithological study in Vietnam by Vietnamese scientists and their colleagues from other countries. The most significant ornithological research during this period was conducted by L. S. Stepanyan and his Vietnamese colleagues as part of a joint Russian-Vietnamese research programme in the Central Highlands, which resulted in the publication of Birds of Vietnam, based on the Investigations of 1978-199052. The other major ornithological work produced during this period was Birds of Vietnam by Vo Quy53,54, the first Vietnamese-language guide to the birds of Vietnam. The fourth period of ornithological research in Vietnam began in April 1988, with the first of three expeditions by the International Council for Bird Preservation (now BirdLife International)55. In many parts of the country, these expeditions represented the first ornithological surveys since before the Second World War, and the expeditions successfully established the continued survival of a number of endemic bird species that had not been recorded for over half a century. Following these expeditions, BirdLife International established a country programme, which, together with its Vietnamese counterparts, conducted a series of expeditions throughout the country. Perhaps the most significant result of these expeditions was the discovery by J. C. Eames and his colleagues of three new bird species: Black-crowned Barwing Actinodura sodangorum56, Golden-winged Laughingthrush Garrulax ngoclinhensis57 and Chestnut-eared Laughingthrush G. konkakinhensis58, proving that, despite a century of ornitholigical research, there are still discoveries to be made in the forests of Vietnam. During this period, Chim Vietnam, the first illustrated, Vietnamese-language guide to the birds of Vietnam, written by the country's leading ornithologists Nguyen Cu and Le Trong Trai, was published by BirdLife International59. Bird habitats and communities. A large proportion of Vietnam's bird species, including nearly all of the endemic species, are associated with forests. In terms of bird community composition, forests in Vietnam may be divided into five broad categories: evergreen forest, semi-evergreen forest, deciduous forest, limestone forest and coniferous forest. Of these, the most widespread is evergreen forest, accounting for around 64% of the total natural forest cover of Vietnam29. Evergreen forest occurs in areas with high year-round rainfall and a relatively short dry season, and is dominated by broadleaf tree species that remain in leaf throughout the year. Evergreen forest is the natural vegetation type in many lowland areas in northern and central Vietnam, and in most mountainous areas. Low elevations support a range of lowland evergreen forest formations, characterised by a high diversity of tree species, with no one family dominating. Typical members of the lowland evergreen forest bird community include Brown Hornbill Anorrhinus tickelli, Coral-billed Ground Cuckoo Carpococcyx renauldi, Ratchet-tailed Treepie Temnurus temnurus, and a number of endemic galliformes. At elevations around 1,000 m asl, lowland evergreen forest undergoes a transition to montane evergreen forest. Montane evergreen forest can be divided into lower montane evergreen forest, which is distributed at elevations up to c.1,700 m asl, and dominated by members of the Fagaceae, and Lauraceae families, and upper montane evergreen forest, which is distributed at elevations above c.1,700 m asl, and characterised by the presence of Rhododendron spp. The bird communities of lower and upper montane evergreen forest are fairly similar, with a high diversity of thrushes, nuthatches, babblers and warblers, although the bird community of upper montane evergreen forest is generally less species rich and includes several upper montane specialists, such as Chestnut-tailed Minla Minla strigula, Golden-breasted Fulvetta Alcippe chrysotis and Stripe-throated Yuhina Yuhina gularis. Montane evergreen forest also supports a number of endemic laughingthrushes. Semi-evergreen forest, sometimes referred to as mixed deciduous forest, has a higher proportion of deciduous tree species than evergreen forest, and occurs in areas with greater seasonality. Semi-evergreen forest has a limited distribution in Vietnam and is largely restricted to parts of the Central Highlands and the lowlands of southern Vietnam. The bird community of semi-evergreen forest is very similar to that of lowland evergreen forest. Deciduous forest, sometimes referred to a dry dipterocarp forest, is a low, open forest type, with an understorey dominated by grasses, and a canopy dominated by deciduous trees in the Dipterocarpaceae family. Deciduous forest is distributed in areas with an extended, pronounced dry season. In Vietnam, deciduous forest is confined to the Central Highlands and small parts of the coastal zone of south-central Vietnam. Bird species richness is markedly lower than in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, due to the greater seasonality and the lack of a well developed understorey. The bird community is characterised by a high diversity of woodpeckers and parakeets, and the presence of such species as Rufous-winged Buzzard Butastur liventer, White-rumped Falcon Polihierax insignis, White-browed Fantail Rhipidura aureola, Small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus and Common Woodshrike Tephrodornis pondicerianus. Limestone forest is essentially an evergreen forest formation developed on a limestone karst substrate. While the plant community of limestone forest is quite dissimilar to that of evergreen forest, the bird community is quite similar. There are, however, a few birds restricted to limestone forest, including Limestone Wren Babbler Napothera crispifrons, Streaked Wren Babbler N. brevicaudata, Sooty Babbler Stachyris herbeti and an undescribed taxon of Phylloscopus warbler60. The global ranges of the latter two taxa are restricted to limestone forest areas in central Vietnam and Laos60,61. Coniferous forest refers to forest dominated by conifers. There are also a number of mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest formations in Vietnam but the bird communities of these formations are similar enough to those of evergreen forest not to warrant separate consideration. In Vietnam, natural coniferous forest largely comprises Pinus kesiya forest, a fire-climax formation widespread on the Da Lat plateau. There also exist significant areas of pine plantation throughout the country, although these are of marginal importance for bird conservation. The bird community of natural coniferous forest is generally less species rich than that of other natural forest types, due to the relatively simple forest structure. However, this habitat supports a small suite of species not found in other forest types, such as Slender-billed Oriole Oriolus tenuirostris, Red Crossbill Loxia curvirostra and the endemic Vietnam Greenfinch Carduelis monguilloti. Other terrestrial habitats in Vietnam include natural grassland, secondary grassland and scrub, agricultural land, and human settlements. Of these habitats, natural grassland is of the greatest significance for bird conservation. Natural grassland was once widely distributed in Vietnam, along rivers, around the borders of seasonal wetlands and in areas where edaphic conditions prevented the development of forest. However, this habitat has now been extensively converted to agricultural land and is restricted to a few remnants. Some members of the grassland bird community have adapted to secondary habitats but others are largely restricted to remaining areas of natural habitat, for example Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis, Rufous-rumped Grassbird Graminicola bengalensis and Jerdon's Bushchat Saxicola jerdoni, all of which must be considered on the verge of extinction in Vietnam. In addition to terrestrial habitats, Vietnam supports a wide diversity of wetland habitats. Inland, freshwater wetlands include rivers, lakes and seasonally inundated grasslands. Slow-flowing, forested rivers support a distinctive community of birds, including River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii, Masked Finfoot Heliopais personata and White-winged Duck Cairina scutulata. However, these rivers have been a focus of human settlement throughout Vietnam, leading to the loss of this bird community from most areas, and the presumed national extinction of at least one breeding species: Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda. Lakes are a potentially important habitat for migratory waterbird species, particularly ducks and other waterfowl species. In terms of habitat loss, lakes are one of the least threatened habitats in Vietnam, as, although there are few natural lakes, a large number of artificial lakes have been formed over recent decades following dam construction. Despite the presence of large areas of suitable habitat, the importance of lakes for migratory waterbirds is currently low, due to uncontrolled hunting at most sites. Seasonally inundated grasslands are an important habitat for a number of large waterbird species, including Sarus Crane Grus antigone and Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala. Seasonally inundated grasslands were once widespread throughout the Mekong Delta but have now been reduced to small fragments, and even these are under continued threat of conversion to agriculture and aquaculture62. Coastal and marine wetlands include mangroves, intertidal mudflats and offshore islands. Mangroves are the natural vegetation type along a large proportion of the coastline of Vietnam, particularly in the coastal zones of the Red River and Mekong Deltas. However, as a result of wartime spraying of defoliants in the south of the country, unsustainable fuelwood collection, and widespread enclosure within aquacultural ponds, most areas of natural mangrove have been lost. While few bird species in Vietnam are restricted to mangrove, it is an important habitat for many migratory waterbirds and, in the Mekong Delta, supports a number of important waterbird colonies63. Intertidal mudflats have an uneven distribution along the coastline of Vietnam, being concentrated at the mouths of major rivers. They are one of the most important habitats for migratory waterbirds in Vietnam, as they provide important feeding areas for a range of waders, gulls and terns, including the globally threatened Spoon-billed Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmeus, Spotted Greenshank Tringa guttifer, Saunders's Gull Larus saundersi and Black-faced Spoonbill Platalea minor. Unfortunately, these habitats are subjected to high levels of disturbance, due to shellfish collection and other human activities, and are threatened in many places by mangrove afforestation64. Larger, forested offshore islands, such as Con Son, support two forest species adapted to offshore islands: Pied Imperial Pigeon Ducula bicolor and Nicobar Pigeon Caloenas nicobarica. Smaller, rocky islands are important sites for breeding seabirds, such as terns and boobies, although there has been little ornithological study of these habitats in recent years. Endemic bird areas. Endemic bird areas (EBAs) are areas to which at least two restricted-range bird species (species with a total global breeding range of less than 50,000 km2) are entirely confined61. An analysis conducted by BirdLife International in 1998 identified three EBAs in Vietnam: the Annamese Lowlands, the Da Lat Plateau and the South Vietnamese Lowlands61. However, recent studies have revealed the presence of two others: the Kon Tum Plateau EBA65 and the South-East Chinese Mountains EBA66. In addition, Vietnam contains part of the Fan Si Pan and Northern Laos Secondary Area (an area that supports one or more restricted-range species but has less than two species entirely confined to it)61. The Annamese Lowlands EBA is situated in the lowlands of north-central Vietnam, and also includes a small area in central Laos. The natural vegetation of the EBA is lowland evergreen forest, with smaller areas of limestone forest, although a large proportion of the EBA has been deforested, and much of the remaining natural vegetation is highly fragmented. The Annamese Lowlands EBA supports nine restricted-range species, of which five are entirely confined to it: Annam Partridge Arborophila merlini, Imperial Pheasant Lophura imperialis, Vietnamese Pheasant L. hatinhensis, Edwards's Pheasant L. edwardsi and Sooty Babbler Stachyris herbeti61. There is, however, considerable debate over the taxonomic status of Annam Partridge67, Imperial Pheasant68 and Vietnamese Pheasant68, and it is possible that none of them should be afforded the rank of species. The Kon Tum Plateau EBA is situated in the northern Central Highlands, and also includes a small area in central Laos. The natural vegetation of the EBA comprises montane evergreen forest. The Kon Tum Plateau EBA supports nine restricted-range species, of which three are entirely confined to it: Black-crowned Barwing, Golden-winged Laughingthrush and Chestnut-eared Laughingthrush. All three of these species were only discovered in the late 1990s56,57,58, making the Kon Tum Plateau the most recently identified EBA in Asia. The Da Lat Plateau EBA is situated in the southern Central Highlands. The natural vegetation of the EBA is montane evergreen forest and coniferous forest. Eight restricted-range species occur in the EBA, all but one of which are found in montane evergreen forest61. Three restricted-range species are entirely confined to the EBA: Collared Laughingthrush, Grey-crowned Crocias and Vietnam Greenfinch. In addition, the EBA supports a number of endemic subspecies, for example a subspecies of Spot-breasted Laughingthrush Garrulax merulinus annamensis, some of which are treated as full species by certain authors63. The South Vietnamese Lowlands EBA is situated in the lowlands of south-central Vietnam, and also includes a small area in south-eastern Cambodia. The natural vegetation of the EBA comprises lowland evergreen forest and lowland semi-evergreen forest. Only three restricted-range species are found in the EBA, of which two are entirely confined to it: Orange-necked Partridge Arborophila davidi and Germain's Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron germaini61. Until recently, both species were considered to be endemic to Vietnam, although they have since been recorded in south-eastern Cambodia69,70. The South-East Chinese Mountains EBA61 supports five restricted-range species, only one of which is known to occur in Vietnam: White-eared Night Heron Gorsachius magnificus66. Within Vietnam, there are recent, confirmed records of White-eared Night Heron from only a single site in the north of the country66. The Fan Si Pan and Northern Laos Secondary Area supports four restricted-range species, all of which are also known from other EBAs: Ward's Trogon Harpactes wardi, Red-winged Laughingthrush Garrulax formosus, Broad-billed Warbler Tickellia hodgsoni and Yellow-billed Nuthatch Sitta solangiae61. There have been no confirmed records of Ward's Trogon from Vietnam since historical times, although the species may still occur somewhere in the Hoang Lien mountains. Threatened species. For a
country of relatively small size, Vietnam supports a large number of
threatened bird species. According to Threatened
Birds of Asia,
Vietnam supports 72 bird
species of global conservation concern, comprising three critical, 12
endangered, 25 vulnerable, 31 near-threatened and one data deficient
species71. The Red
Data Book of Vietnam lists
83 bird taxa of national conservation concern, comprising 14 endangered,
six vulnerable, 32 threatened and 31 rare taxa16. The Red
Data Book of Vietnam draws
attention to species that are widespread and common in other parts of
the world but under particular threat within Vietnam, such as Great
Cormorant Phalacrocorax
carbo, Black-billed Magpie Pica
pica and Collared Crow Corvus
torquatus16.
The major threats to bird diversity in Vietnam are habitat loss,
uncontrolled use of pesticides, and over-exploitation, through hunting
and collection for the pet trade. 1.6 The global IBA programme
The global Important Bird Area
(IBA) programme is coordinated by BirdLife International, and aims to
identify and protect a network of critical sites for the world’s
birds. The IBA programme began in Europe in 198572, and was
adopted as a global initiative by BirdLife International at the 1994
World Conference. The IBA programme has proved to be a very
cost-effective and flexible way of identifying and promoting coherent
and organized action for priority sites for birds and biodiversity at
the regional, national and local levels. To date IBAs have been
identified for all countries in Europe73, Africa74
and the Middle East75, and inventories are underway in Asia
and the Americas and planned for the Pacific. Based on the work done to
date, it is expected that the programme will identify approximately
14,000 IBAs worldwide. In Vietnam, the IBA programme is being
coordinated by BirdLife International in Indochina, in
collaboration with the Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources of
the National Centre for Natural Science and Technology, and with
financial support from Danida. References
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